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Sherpa people

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Sherpa
ཤར་པ།
shar pa
Young Sherpas in traditional attire at West Bengal Sherpa Cultural Board
Regions with significant populations
 Nepal120,000[1]
 India65,000 (above)[2]
 Bhutan10,700
 United States16,800
 China2,000[citation needed]
Languages
Sherpa, Tibetan, Nepali
Religion
Predominantly Buddhism (93,83%)[3] and significant minority: Hinduism (6,26%),[3] Bön, Christianity[3]
Related ethnic groups
Tibetans, Tamang, Hyolmo, Jirels, Rai and other Tibeto-Burman groups
This article contains Tibetan script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Tibetan script.

The Sherpa people (Standard Tibetan: ཤར་པ།, romanized: shar pa) are one of the Tibetan ethnic groups native to the most mountainous regions of Nepal and Tibetan Autonomous Region of China.

The majority of Sherpas live in the eastern regions of Nepal, namely in Solukhumba, Khatra, Kama, Rolwaling, Barun and Pharak valleys;[4] though some live farther West in the Bigu and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu, Nepal. Sherpas establish gompas where they practice their religious traditions. Tengboche was the first celibate monastery in Solu-Khumbu. Sherpa people also live in Tingri County, Bhutan, and the Indian states of Sikkim and the northern portion of West Bengal, specifically the district of Darjeeling.

The Sherpa language belongs to the southern branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages, mixed with Eastern Tibetan (Khams Tibetan) and central Tibetan dialects. However, this language is separate from Lhasa Tibetan and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers.[5]

The number of Sherpas migrating to Western countries has significantly increased in recent years, especially to the United States. New York City has the largest Sherpa community in the United States, with a population of approximately 16,000. The 2011 Nepal census recorded 512,946 Sherpas within its borders. Members of the Sherpa population are known for their skills in mountaineering as a livelihood.

History

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The Sherpa people descend from historically nomadic progenitors who first settled the Khumbu and Solu regions of the Mahālangūr Himāl section of the Himalayan range in the Tibetan Plateau. This area is situated along the modern border dividing the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal from the People's Republic of China within Solukhumbu District in Koshi, the easternmost Nepali province, to the south of the Tibet Autonomous Region in China.

According to Sherpa oral history, four groups migrated from Kham in Tibet to Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four fundamental Sherpa clans: Minyakpa, Thimmi, Lamasherwa, and Chawa. These four groups gradually split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. Mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration out of Tibet in the 13th and 14th centuries and its arrival in the Khumbu regions of Nepal. Sherpa migrants travelled through Ü and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya.[6][7][8]

By the 1400s, the Khumbu Sherpa people had attained autonomy within the newly formed Nepali state. In the 1960s, as tension with China increased, the Nepali government influence on the Sherpa people grew. In 1976, Khumbu became a national park, and tourism became a major economic force.[3]

The term sherpa derives from the Tibetan words shar (ཤར, 'east') and pa (པ, 'people'). The reasons for adoption of this term are unclear; one common explanation describes origins in eastern Tibet but the community is based in the Nepalese highlands which is to Tibet's south.[9][10][11]

Genetics

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Genetic studies show that much of the Sherpa population has allele frequencies that are often found in other Tibeto-Burman regions. In tested genes, the strongest affinity was for Tibetan population sample studies done in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[6] Genetically, the Sherpa cluster is closest to the sample Tibetan and Han populations.[12]

Additionally, the Sherpa had exhibited an affinity for several Nepalese populations, with the strongest for the Rai people, followed by the Magars and the Tamang.[12]

A 2010 study identified more than 30 genetic factors that make Tibetan bodies well-suited for high altitudes, including EPAS1, referred to as the "super-athlete gene," that regulates the body's production of hemoglobin,[13] allowing for greater efficiency in the use of oxygen.[14][13]

A 2016 study of Sherpas in Tibet suggested that a small portion of Sherpas' and Tibetans' allele frequencies originated from separate ancient populations, which were estimated to have remained somewhat distributed for 11,000 to 7,000 years.[15]

Haplogroup distribution

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A 2014 study observed that considerable genetic components from the Indian Subcontinent were found in Sherpa people living in Tibet. The western Y chromosomal haplogroups R1a1a-M17, J-M304, and F*-M89 comprise almost 17% of the paternal gene pool in tested individuals. In the maternal side, M5c2, M21d, and U from the west also count up to 8% of people in given Sherpa populations.[16] However, a later study from 2015 did not support the results from the 2014 study; the 2015 study concluded that genetic sharing from the Indian subcontinent was highly limited;[6] a 2017 study found the same.[12]

In a 2015 study of 582 Sherpa individuals (277 males) from China and Nepal, haplogroup D-M174 was found most frequently, followed by Haplogroup O-M175, Haplogroup F-M89 and Haplogroup K-M9. The Y-chromosome haplogroup distribution for Sherpas follow a pattern similar to that for Tibetans.[6]

Sherpa mtDNA distribution shows greater diversity, as Haplogroup A was found most frequently, followed by Haplogroup M9a, Haplogroup C4a, Haplogroup M70, and Haplogroup D. These haplogroups are also found in some Tibetan populations. However, two common mtDNA sub-haplogroups unique to Sherpas populations were identified: Haplogroup A15c1 and Haplogroup C4a3b1.[6]

Mountaineering

[edit]
Sherpa mountain guide Pem Dorjee Sherpa at Khumbu Icefall
Further information: Mountaineering and Mountain guide

Many Sherpas are highly regarded as elite mountaineers and experts in their local area. They were valuable to early explorers of the Himalayan region, serving as guides at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region, particularly for expeditions to climb Mount Everest. Today, the term is often used by foreigners to refer to almost any guide or climbing supporter hired for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas, regardless of their ethnicity.[17] Because of this usage, the term has become a slang byword for a guide or mentor in other situations.[18] Sherpas are renowned in the international climbing and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at very high altitudes. It has been speculated that part of the Sherpas' climbing ability is the result of a genetic adaptation to living in high altitudes. Some of these adaptations include unique hemoglobin-binding capacity and doubled nitric oxide production.[19]

Deaths in 2014 Everest avalanche

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Main article: 2014 Mount Everest avalanche

On 18 April 2014, a serac collapsed above the Khumbu Icefall on Mount Everest, causing an avalanche of massive chunks of ice and snow which killed 16 Nepalese guides, mostly Sherpas.[20] The 2014 avalanche is the second-deadliest disaster in Everest's history, only exceeded by avalanches in the Khumbu Icefall area a year later, on 25 April 2015, caused by a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal. In response to that tragedy and others involving deaths and injuries sustained by Sherpas hired by climbers, and the lack of government support for Sherpas injured or killed while providing their services, some Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job, and some climbing companies are no longer providing guides and porters for Everest expeditions.[21][22] The Khumbu Icefall is essentially a waterfall of ice with continuous structural shifts, requiring continuous changes to the route through the area[23] and making this is one of the most, if not the most, dangerous parts of climbing Mount Everest. Climbers have to walk on ladders over crevasses, while walking underneath large serac formations that could potentially fall at any moment. Oftentimes the journey through the Khumbu Icefall is in the pitch black. It is safer for climbers to go through the icefall at night because the temperatures at night drop. Therefore, the icefall is not melting as fast as it would during the day.[24] These dangers have resulted in 66 deaths as of 2017, including 6 deaths from falling in a crevasse, 9 deaths from a collapse in a section of the icefall, and 29 deaths from avalanches onto the icefall.[25] The families of those who died in the avalanche were offered 40,000 rupees, the equivalent of about $400 US dollars, from the Nepalese government.[26] At the time of the disaster, the Sherpas were carrying loads of equipment for their clients, including many luxury items.[27] There had been two broken ladders causing a traffic jam in the Khumbu Icefall.[28] It is not uncommon for Sherpas to go through the Khumbu Icefall around 30 times each season; in comparison, foreigners only go through the icefall 2 or 3 times during the season.[24] Sherpas are expected to haul the majority of their clients' gear to each of the five camps and to set up before their clients reach the camps. During each season, Sherpas typically make up to $5000 US dollars during their 2 or 3-month period of taking international clients to the summit of Everest.[24] As of 2019, expeditions on Mt. Everest contributed $300 million.[29] The economy of Nepal thrives off of tourism and adventure seekers.

As a result of the 2014 disaster, the remaining Sherpas went on strike. They were angry at the government, lack of compensation, and their working conditions. Sherpas came together in the days after the disaster to make a list of demands for the government.[24] The documentary Sherpa contains footage of one of their meetings. Sherpas wanted to cancel the climbing season that year out of respect for those who lost their lives. They argued that "This route has become a graveyard," and asked "How could we walk over their bodies?". Their clients were debating whether or not to continue to try to reach the summit of Everest because they had paid tens of thousands of dollars to be there.[28] However, international clients were fearful of this strike and how it would affect themselves and had their bags packed in case of a need for a swift escape.[24] On top of this, rumors spread among the Sherpa community that others would hurt them if they were to continue to take foreigners on their expeditions (Peedom, 2016). The 2014 event killed 16 Sherpas[30] and, in 2015, 10 Sherpas died at the Everest Base Camp after the earthquake. In total, 118 Sherpas have died on Mount Everest between 1921 and 2018.[31][32] An April 2018 report by NPR stated that Sherpas account for one-third of Everest deaths.[33]

Religion

[edit]
Thame Gompa is one of numerous Sherpa monasteries in Nepal

According to oral Buddhist traditions, the initial Tibetan migration was a search for a beyul (Buddhist pure-lands). Sherpa practised the Nyingma ("Ancient") school of Buddhism. Allegedly the oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet, founded by Padmasambhava (commonly known as Guru Rinpoche) during the 8th century, it emphasizes mysticism and the incorporation of local deities shared by the pre-Buddhist Bön religion, which has shamanic elements. Sherpa particularly believe in hidden treasures and valleys. Traditionally, Nyingmapa practice was passed down orally through a loose network of lay practitioners. Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the belief in reincarnated spiritual leaders, are later adaptations.[3]

In addition to Buddha and the great Buddhist divinities, the Sherpa also believe in numerous deities and demons who inhabit every mountain, cave, and forest. These have to be respected or appeased through ancient practices woven into the fabric of Buddhist ritual life. Many of the great Himalayan mountains are considered sacred. The Sherpa call Mount Everest Chomolungma and respect it as the "Mother of the World." Mount Makalu is respected as the deity Shankar (Shiva). Each clan reveres certain mountain peaks and their protective deities.[34]

Today, the day-to-day Sherpa religious affairs are presided over by lamas (Buddhist spiritual leaders) and other religious practitioners living in the villages. The village lama who presides over ceremonies and rituals can be a celibate monk or a married householder.[35] In addition, shamans (lhawa) and soothsayers (mindung) deal with the supernatural and the spirit world. Lamas identify witches (pem), act as the mouthpiece of deities and spirits, and diagnose spiritual illnesses.[citation needed]

An important aspect of Sherpa religion is the temple or gompa. A gompa is the prayer hall for either villages or monasteries. There are numerous gompas and about two dozen monasteries scattered throughout the Solukhumbu region. The monasteries are communities of lamas or monks (sometimes of nuns) who take a vow of celibacy and lead a life of isolation searching for truth and religious enlightenment. They are respected by and supported by the community at large. Their contact with the outside world is focused on monastery practices and annual festivals to which the public is invited, as well as the reading of sacred texts at funerals.[citation needed]

Sacred land in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

[edit]

Mt. Everest is located within the Sagarmatha National Park, which is a sacred landscape for local Sherpas.[36] The region is considered the dwelling of supernatural beings.[36] Sherpas value life and the beauty it provides, meaning they avoid killing living creatures. Furthermore, Mt. Everest has attracted many tourists who unknowingly or knowingly are disrupting the sacred land of the park. For example, finding firewood has been deemed problematic. Many tourists stick with the methods they know how to do, which is oftentimes cutting down trees or taking branches off trees to make a fire. This practice is against Sherpas' spiritual law of the land.[36] Moreover, the Sherpas do a spiritual ritual before climbing the mountain to ask the mountain for permission to climb. This ritual seems to have become a spectacle for foreign climbers.

In addition, the entirety of the national park is not governed by the Sherpas but rather foreigners to the land. Park managers have made an effort to try to include Sherpas' voices by creating buffer-zone user groups. These groups are made up of political leaders from the surrounding villages, and serve as a platform for Sherpa demands.[37] However, these groups do not have any official status and the government can decide whether or not to hear these demands or make the desired changes.[38]

Sherpa clothing

[edit]

Men wear long-sleeved robes called chuba, which fall to slightly below the knee. The chuba is tied at the waist with a cloth sash called kara, creating a pouch-like space called namdok which can be used for storing and carrying small items. Traditionally, chuba were made from thick home-spun wool, or a variant called lokpa made from sheepskin. Chuba are worn over raatuk, a blouse (traditionally made out of bure, white raw silk), trousers called kanam, and a stiff collared shirt called tetung.

Women traditionally wear long-sleeved floor-length dresses called tongkok. A sleeveless variation called aangi is worn over a full sleeved shirt called honju and with a raatuk (blouse) underneath the shirt. These are worn with colourful striped aprons; pangden (or metil) aprons are worn in front, and gewe (or gyabtil) in back, and are held together by an embossed silver buckle called kyetig and a kara[3]: 138–141 

Sherpa clothing resembles Tibetan clothing. Increasingly, home-spun wool and silk is being replaced by factory-made material. Many Sherpa people also now wear ready-made western clothing.


Traditional housing

[edit]
Traditional Sherpa architecture, but with a steel roof

When a son marries and has children, the community may help to construct a new house, as the extended family becomes too large for a single home. The neighbours often contribute food, drinks and labour to help the family. Houses are typically spaced to allow fields in between. A spiritual ceremony may be conducted at every building stage as the house must have space for deities, humans and animals. Once constructed, the house is often handed down within a family and not sold. The house style depends on the lay of the land: old river terraces, former lake beds or mountain slopes. There are stone single-story, 1+1⁄2-story (on a slope), and the two-story houses, with ample room for animals. Many well-to-do families will have an annex shrine room for sacred statues, scriptures and ritual objects. The roof is sloping and is made from local natural materials, or imported metal. There's space in the roof to allow for fire smoke to escape. There may be an internal or external outhouse for making compost.[3]: 14–16 

Social gatherings

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"A Sherpa community will most commonly get together for a party, which is held by the host with the purpose of gaining favour with the community and neighbours". Guests are invited hours before the party will start by the host's children to reduce the chance of rejection. In all social gatherings the men are seated by order of status, with those of lesser status sitting closer to the door and men of higher status sitting by the fireplace, while the women sit in the center with no ordering. It is polite to sit in a space lower than one's proper place so one may be invited by the host to their proper place. The first several hours of the party will have only beer served, followed by the serving of food, and then several more hours of singing and dancing before people start to drift out. The act of manipulating one's neighbours into cooperation by hosting a party is known as Yangdzi, and works by expecting the hospitality done by the host with the serving of food and alcohol to be repaid.[39]

Notable people

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Nepalese Sherpa mountain climber Tenzing Norgay, 1953

Demographics

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The Central Bureau of Statistics of Nepal classifies the Sherpa as a subgroup within the broader social group of Mountain/Hill Janajati.[56] At the time of the 2021 Nepal census, 130,637 people (0.45% of the population of Nepal) were Sherpa. Just 9,435 of them speak second language. The frequency of Sherpa people by province was as follows:

The frequency of Sherpa people was higher than national average (0.4%) in the following districts:[57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ POPULATION MONOGRAPH OF NEPAL VOLUME II (Social Demography). Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. pp. 10–156. ISBN 978-9937-2-8972-6. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
  2. ^ "Rai-Peoplegrouporg".
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Population monograph of Nepal (PDF). Vol. II (Social Demography). Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. ISBN 978-9937-2-8972-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2017. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  4. ^ "People of Nepal | Plan Your Trip". ntb.gov.np. Retrieved 13 March 2023.[better source needed]
  5. ^ "Journée d'étude : Déserts. Y a-t-il des corrélations entre l'écosystème et le changement linguistique ?". Lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
  6. ^ a b c d e Bhandari, Sushil; et al. (2015). "Genetic evidence of a recent Tibetan ancestry to Sherpas in the Himalayan region". Scientific Reports. 5: 16249. Bibcode:2015NatSR...516249B. doi:10.1038/srep16249. PMC 4633682. PMID 26538459.
  7. ^ "History of the Sherpas". sherwa.de. Retrieved 3 March 2024.[better source needed]
  8. ^ "Sherpa clans". sherwa.de. Retrieved 3 March 2024.[better source needed]
  9. ^ "How Sherpa got its Name". wesherpas.org. 11 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2024.
  10. ^ Niraula, Ashish (29 May 2023). "Sherpas Of Solukhumbu". Radiant Treks. Retrieved 2 March 2024.[better source needed]
  11. ^ Strickland, S. S.; von Fuerer Haimendorf, Christoph (March 1986). "The Sherpas Transformed: Social Change in a Buddhist Society of Nepal". Man. 21 (1): 153–154. ISSN 0025-1496. JSTOR 2802670.
  12. ^ a b c Cole, Amy M.; Cox, Sean; Jeong, Choongwon; Petousi, Nayia; Aryal, Dhana R.; Droma, Yunden; Hanaoka, Masayuki; Ota, Masao; Kobayashi, Nobumitsu; Gasparini, Paolo; Montgomery, Hugh; Robbins, Peter; Di Rienzo, Anna; Cavalleri, Gianpiero L. (2017). "Genetic structure in the Sherpa and neighbouring Nepalese populations". BMC Genomics. 18 (1): 102. doi:10.1186/s12864-016-3469-5. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 5248489. PMID 28103797. This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.
  13. ^ a b Sanders, Robert (30 November 2001). "Tibetans adapted to high altitude in less than 3,000 years". Berkeley News. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
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  15. ^ Lu, Dongsheng; et al. (1 September 2016). "Ancestral Origins and Genetic History of Tibetan Highlanders". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 99 (3): 580–594. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.07.002. PMC 5011065. PMID 27569548.
  16. ^ Kang, Longli; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Chen, Feng; Yao, Dali; Jin, Li; Li, Hui (2 January 2016). "Northward genetic penetration across the Himalayas viewed from Sherpa people". Mitochondrial DNA Part A. 27 (1): 342–349. doi:10.3109/19401736.2014.895986. ISSN 2470-1394. PMID 24617465. S2CID 24273050.
  17. ^ Educational Media and Technology Yearbook – Volume 36, Michael Orey, Stephanie A. Jones, Robert Maribe Branch, page 94 (2011), ISBN 1461413044: "A Sherpa is traditionally a knowledgeable native who guides mountain climbers on their most difficult and risky ascents." Buried in the Sky: The Extraordinary Story of the Sherpa Climbers, by Peter Zuckerman, Amanda Padoan, page 65 (2012): "Lowlanders clutching the Lonely Planet guide are convinced they want to hire "a sherpa," even if they don't know what a Sherpa is..."
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  22. ^ The Associated Press (21 April 2014). "Sherpas Consider Boycott After Everest Disaster". NPR.
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  28. ^ a b Barry, Ellen; Bowley, Graham (21 April 2014). "After Everest Disaster, Sherpas Contemplate Strike". The New York Times.
  29. ^ Robles, Pablo (20 November 2020). "Covid Pandemic: Mount Everest, Nepal Try to Restart Economy After Shutdowns". Bloomberg.
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  33. ^ "One-Third of Everest Deaths Are Sherpa Climbers". NPR. 14 April 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  34. ^ "When you call someone a Sherpa, what does that mean?". Public Radio International. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  35. ^ Sherpa, Ngawang Tenzin Zangbu (2011). Stories and Customs of the Sherpas (5th ed.). Kathmandu, Nepal: Mera Publications. p. 6. ISBN 978-99933-553-0-4.
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  37. ^ Sivinski, Jake (1 October 2015). "Conservation For Whom?: The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Sagarmatha National Park". Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection.
  38. ^ Sivinski, Jake (1 October 2015). "Conservation For Whom?: The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Sagarmatha National Park". Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection.
  39. ^ Ortner, Sherry B. (1978). Sherpas Through Their Rituals. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–75. ISBN 978-0-521-29216-0.
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  57. ^ "2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
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