Jump to content

Signs and symptoms

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Cardinal symptom)

A diagram of a human torso labelled with the most common symptoms of an acute HIV infection
Signs (including enlarged liver and spleen) and symptoms (including headache and vomiting) of acute HIV infection

Signs and symptoms are diagnostic indications of an illness, injury, or condition.

Signs are objective and externally observable; symptoms are a person's reported subjective experiences.[1]

A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than normal, raised or lowered blood pressure or an abnormality showing on a medical scan. A symptom is something out of the ordinary that is experienced by an individual such as feeling feverish, a headache or other pains in the body,[2][3] which occur as the body's immune system fights off an infection.[4][5][6]

Signs and symptoms

[edit]

Signs

[edit]

A medical sign is an objective observable indication of a disease, injury, or medical condition that may be detected during a physical examination.[7] These signs may be visible, such as a rash or bruise, or otherwise detectable such as by using a stethoscope or taking blood pressure. Medical signs, along with symptoms, help in forming a diagnosis. Some examples of signs are nail clubbing of either the fingernails or toenails[8] or an abnormal gait.[9]

Symptoms

[edit]

A symptom is something felt or experienced, such as pain or dizziness. Signs and symptoms are not mutually exclusive, for example a subjective feeling of fever can be noted as sign by using a thermometer that registers a high reading.[10] The CDC lists various diseases by their signs and symptoms such as for measles which includes a high fever, conjunctivitis, and cough, followed a few days later by the measles rash.[11]

Cardinal signs and symptoms

[edit]

Cardinal signs and symptoms are very specific even to the point of being pathognomonic. A cardinal sign or cardinal symptom can also refer to the major sign or symptom of a disease.[12] Abnormal reflexes can indicate problems with the nervous system. Signs and symptoms are also applied to physiological states outside the context of disease, as for example when referring to the signs and symptoms of pregnancy, or the symptoms of dehydration. Sometimes a disease may be present without showing any signs or symptoms when it is known as being asymptomatic.[13] The disorder may be discovered through tests including scans. An infection may be asymptomatic but still be transmissible.[13]

Syndrome

[edit]
Main article: Syndrome

Signs and symptoms are often non-specific, but some combinations can be suggestive of certain diagnoses, helping to narrow down what may be wrong. A particular set of characteristic signs and symptoms that may be associated with a disorder is known as a syndrome.

[edit]

Symptomatic

[edit]

When a disease is evidenced by symptoms it is known as symptomatic. There are many conditions including subclinical infections that display no symptoms, and these are termed asymptomatic.

Signs and symptoms may be mild or severe, brief or longer-lasting when they may become reduced (remission), or then recur (relapse or recrudescence) known as a flare-up. A flare-up may show more severe symptoms.[14]

The term chief complaint, also "presenting problem", is used to describe the initial concern of an individual when seeking medical help, and once this is clearly noted a history of the present illness may be taken. The symptom that ultimately leads to a diagnosis is called a cardinal symptom.[citation needed] Some symptoms can be misleading as a result of referred pain, where for example a pain in the right shoulder may be due to an inflamed gallbladder and not to presumed muscle strain.[15]

Prodrome

[edit]

Many diseases have an early prodromal stage where a few signs and symptoms may suggest the presence of a disorder before further specific symptoms may emerge. Measles for example has a prodromal presentation that includes a hacking cough, fever, and Koplik's spots in the mouth.[16] Over half of migraine episodes have a prodromal phase.[17] Schizophrenia has a notable prodromal stage,[18] as has dementia.[19]

Nonspecific symptoms

[edit]

Some symptoms are specific, that is, they are associated with a single, specific medical condition.[citation needed]

Nonspecific symptoms, sometimes also called equivocal symptoms,[20] are not specific to a particular condition. They include unexplained weight loss, headache, pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, night sweats, and malaise.[21] A group of three particular nonspecific symptoms – fever, night sweats, and weight loss – over a period of six months are termed B symptoms associated with lymphoma and indicate a poor prognosis.[22]

Other sub-types of symptoms include:

  • constitutional or general symptoms, which affect general well-being or the whole body, such as a fever;[23][24]
  • concomitant symptoms, which are symptoms that occur at the same time as the primary symptom;[25]
  • prodromal symptoms, which are the first symptoms of an bigger set of problems;[26]
  • delayed symptoms, which happen some time after the trigger;[27] and
  • objective symptoms, which are symptoms whose existence can be observed and confirmed by a healthcare provider.[28]

Vital signs

[edit]

Vital signs are the four signs that can give an immediate measurement of the body's overall functioning and health status. They are temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure. The ranges of these measurements vary with age, weight, gender and with general health.[29]

A digital application has been developed for use in clinical settings that measures three of the vital signs (not temperature) using just a smartphone, and has been approved by NHS England. The application is registered as Lifelight First, and Lifelight Home is under development (2020) for monitoring-use by people at home using just the camera on their smartphone or tablet. This will additionally measure oxygen saturation and atrial fibrillation. Other devices are then not needed.[30]

Syndromes

[edit]
Further information: List of syndromes and List of medical triads, tetrads, and pentads

Many conditions are indicated by a group of known signs, or signs and symptoms. These can be a group of three known as a triad; a group of four ("tetrad"); or a group of five ("pentad").[citation needed]

An example of a triad is Meltzer's triad presenting purpura a rash, arthralgia painful joints, and myalgia painful and weak muscles. Meltzer's triad indicates the condition cryoglobulinemia. Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by a triad of motor, cognitive, and psychiatric signs and symptoms.[31] A large number of these groups that can be characteristic of a particular disease are known as a syndrome. Noonan syndrome for example, has a diagnostic set of unique facial and musculoskeletal features.[32] Some syndromes such as nephrotic syndrome may have a number of underlying causes that are all related to diseases that affect the kidneys.[33]

Sometimes a child or young adult may have symptoms suggestive of a genetic disorder that cannot be identified even after genetic testing. In such cases the term SWAN (syndrome without a name) may be used. Often a diagnosis may be made at some future point when other more specific symptoms emerge but many cases may remain undiagnosed. The inability to diagnose may be due to a unique combination of symptoms or an overlap of conditions, or to the symptoms being atypical of a known disorder, or to the disorder being extremely rare.[34]

It is possible that a person with a particular syndrome might not display every single one of the signs and/or symptoms that compose/define a syndrome.[citation needed]

Positive and negative

[edit]

Sensory symptoms can also be described as positive symptoms, or as negative symptoms depending on whether the symptom is abnormally present such as tingling or itchiness, or abnormally absent such as loss of smell. The following terms are used for negative symptoms – hypoesthesia is a partial loss of sensitivity to moderate stimuli, such as pressure, touch, warmth, cold. Anesthesia is the complete loss of sensitivity to stronger stimuli, such as pinprick. Hypoalgesia (analgesia) is loss of sensation to painful stimuli.[35]

Symptoms are also grouped in to negative and positive for some mental disorders such as schizophrenia.[36] Positive symptoms are those that are present in the disorder and are not normally experienced by most individuals and reflects an excess or distortion of normal functions;[37] examples are hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behavior.[citation needed] Negative symptoms are functions that are normally found but that are diminished or absent, such as apathy and anhedonia.[37]

Dynamic and static

[edit]

Dynamic symptoms are capable of change depending on circumstance, whereas static symptoms are fixed or unchanging regardless of circumstance. For example, the symptoms of exercise intolerance are dynamic as they are brought on by exercise, but alleviate during rest. Fixed muscle weakness is a static symptom as the muscle will be weak regardless of exercise or rest.[citation needed]

A majority of patients with metabolic myopathies have dynamic rather than static findings, typically experiencing exercise intolerance, muscle pain, and cramps with exercise rather than fixed weakness.[38] Those with the metabolic myopathy of McArdle's disease (GSD-V) and some individuals with phosphoglucomutase deficiency (CDG1T/GSD-XIV), initially experience exercise intolerance during mild-moderate aerobic exercise, but the symptoms alleviate after 6–10 minutes in what is known as "second wind".

Neuropsychiatric

[edit]

Neuropsychiatric symptoms are present in many degenerative disorders including dementia, and Parkinson's disease. Symptoms commonly include apathy, anxiety, and depression.[39] Neurological and psychiatric symptoms are also present in some genetic disorders such as Wilson's disease.[40] Symptoms of executive dysfunction are often found in many disorders including schizophrenia, and ADHD.[41][42]

Radiologic

[edit]

Radiologic signs are abnormal medical findings on imaging scanning. These include the Mickey Mouse sign and the Golden S sign. When using imaging to find the cause of a complaint, another unrelated finding may be found known as an incidental finding.[43]

Cardinal

[edit]

Cardinal signs and symptoms are those that may be diagnostic, and pathognomonic – of a certainty of diagnosis. Inflammation for example has a recognised group of cardinal signs and symptoms,[44] as does exacerbations of chronic bronchitis,[45] and Parkinson's disease.

In contrast to a pathognomonic cardinal sign, the absence of a sign or symptom can often rule out a condition. This is known by the Latin term sine qua non. For example, the absence of known genetic mutations specific for a hereditary disease would rule out that disease.[46] Another example is where the vaginal pH is less than 4.5, a diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis would be excluded.[47]

Reflexes

[edit]

A reflex is an automatic response in the body to a stimulus.[48] Its absence, reduced (hypoactive), or exaggerated (hyperactive) response can be a sign of damage to the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system. In the patellar reflex (knee-jerk) for example, its reduction or absence is known as Westphal's sign and may indicate damage to lower motor neurons. When the response is exaggerated damage to the upper motor neurons may be indicated.[citation needed]

Facies

[edit]

A number of medical conditions are associated with a distinctive facial expression or appearance known as a facies.[49] An example is elfin facies which has facial features like those of the elf, and this may be associated with Williams syndrome, or Donohue syndrome. The most well-known facies is probably the Hippocratic facies that is seen on a person as they near death.[50]

Anamnestic signs

[edit]

Anamnestic signs (from anamnēstikós, ἀναμνηστικός, "able to recall to mind") are signs that indicate a past condition, for example paralysis in an arm may indicate a past stroke.[51]: 81 

Asymptomatic

[edit]

Some diseases including cancers, and infections may be present but show no signs or symptoms and these are known as asymptomatic.[13] A gallstone may be asymptomatic and only discovered as an incidental finding.[13] Easily spreadable viral infections such as COVID-19 may be asymptomatic but may still be transmissible.[52]

History

[edit]

Symptomatology

[edit]

A symptom (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident, misfortune, that which befalls",[53] from συμπίπτω, "I befall", from συν- "together, with" and πίπτω, "I fall") is a departure from normal function or feeling. Symptomatology (also called semiology) is a branch of medicine dealing with the signs and symptoms of a disease.[54][55][56] This study also includes the indications of a disease.[57] It was first described as semiotics by Henry Stubbe in 1670 a term now used for the study of sign communication.[citation needed]

Prior to the nineteenth century there was little difference in the powers of observation between physician and patient. Most medical practice was conducted as a co-operative interaction between the physician and patient; this was gradually replaced by a "monolithic consensus of opinion imposed from within the community of medical investigators".[58][59] Whilst each noticed much the same things, the physician had a more informed interpretation of those things: "the physicians knew what the findings meant and the layman did not".[51]: 82 

Development of medical testing

[edit]
Further information: Medical test
Painting of René Laennec in 1816 using an early method of auscultation on a man with tuberculosis

A number of advances introduced mostly in the 19th century, allowed for more objective assessment by the physician in search of a diagnosis, and less need of input from the patient.[58][59][60] During the 20th century the introduction of a wide range of imaging techniques and other testing methods such as genetic testing, clinical chemistry tests, molecular diagnostics and pathogenomics have made a huge impact on diagnostic capability.[61]

  • In 1761 the percussion technique for diagnosing respiratory conditions was discovered by Leopold Auenbrugger.[62] This method of tapping body cavities to note any abnormal sounds had already been in practice for a long time in cardiology.[62] Percussion of the thorax became more widely known after 1808 with the translation of Auenbrugger's work from Latin into French by Jean-Nicolas Corvisart.[63]
  • In 1819 the introduction of the stethoscope by René Laennec began to replace the centuries-old technique of immediate auscultation – listening to the heart by placing the ear directly on the chest, with mediate auscultation using the stethoscope to listen to the sounds of the heart and respiratory tract. Laennec's publication was translated into English, 1824, by John Forbes.
  • The 1846 introduction by surgeon John Hutchinson (1811–1861) of the spirometer, an apparatus for assessing the mechanical properties of the lungs via measurements of forced exhalation and forced inhalation. (The recorded lung volumes and air flow rates are used to distinguish between restrictive disease (in which the lung volumes are decreased: e.g., cystic fibrosis) and obstructive diseases (in which the lung volume is normal but the air flow rate is impeded; e.g., emphysema).)[citation needed]
  • The 1851 invention by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) of the ophthalmoscope, which allowed physicians to examine the inside of the human eye.
  • The (c. 1870) immediate widespread clinical use of Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt's (1836–1925) six-inch (rather than twelve-inch) pocket clinical thermometer, which he had devised in 1867.[64]
  • The 1882 introduction of bacterial cultures by Robert Koch, initially for tuberculosis, being the first laboratory test to confirm bacterial infections.
  • The 1895 clinical use of X-rays which began almost immediately after they had been discovered that year by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923).
  • The 1896 introduction of the sphygmomanometer, designed by Scipione Riva-Rocci (1863–1937), to measure blood pressure.

Diagnosis

[edit]

The recognition of signs, and noting of symptoms may lead to a diagnosis. Otherwise a physical examination may be carried out, and a medical history taken. Further diagnostic medical tests such as blood tests, scans, and biopsies, may be needed. An X-ray for example would soon be diagnostic of a suspected bone fracture. A noted significance detected during an examination or from a medical test may be known as a medical finding.[65]

Examples

[edit]
See also: List of eponymous medical signs
Further information: List of medical symptoms § Medical signs and symptoms

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sadock BJ, Sadock VA (2008). Kaplan & Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-8746-8. Archived from the original on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  2. ^ "Beyond Intuition: Quantifying and Understanding the Signs and Symptoms of Fever". clinicaltrials.gov. 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  3. ^ "Symptoms and self-help guides by body part". NHS inform. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  4. ^ "How Infection Works, How Pathogens Make Us Sick — The National Academies". needtoknow.nas.edu. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  5. ^ "Infectious Diseases". Cleveland Clinic. 6 June 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ "Immune System". Cleveland Clinic. 20 October 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ^ "Definition of Sign". Merriam-Webster. 20 June 2023. Archived from the original on 20 May 2006. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  8. ^ Fawcett RS, Linford S, Stulberg DL (15 March 2004). "Nail Abnormalities: Clues to Systemic Disease". American Family Physician. 69 (6): 1417–1424. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  9. ^ Nonnekes J, Růžička E, Serranová T, Reich SG, Bloem BR, Hallett M (16 June 2020). "Functional gait disorders". Neurology. 94 (24). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 1093–1099. doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000009649. hdl:2066/220783. ISSN 0028-3878.
  10. ^ Marie T. O'Toole, ed., Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 9th ed. (St. Louis, MO: Elsevier/Mosby, 2013), Kindle loc. 154641. ISBN 978-0323085410
  11. ^ "Measles Signs and Symptoms". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 5 November 2020. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  12. ^ Basu S, Sahi PK (July 2017). "Malaria: An Update". Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 84 (7): 521–528. doi:10.1007/s12098-017-2332-2. PMID 28357581. S2CID 11461451.
  13. ^ a b c d "Definition of Asymptomatic". Merriam-Webster. 26 June 2023. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  14. ^ Shiel WC Jr (20 June 2019). "Definition of Flare". MedicineNet. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  15. ^ Greenberger N.J., Paumgartner G (2012). Chapter 311. Diseases of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts. In Longo D.L., Fauci A.S., Kasper D.L., Hauser S.L., Jameson J, Loscalzo J (Eds), Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e
  16. ^ "Measles – Pediatrics". MSD Manual Professional Edition. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  17. ^ Lynn DJ, Newton HB, Rae-Grant A (2004). The 5-minute neurology consult. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-683-30723-8. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017.
  18. ^ Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5 (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. pp. 99–105. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
  19. ^ Sherman C, Liu CS, Herrmann N, Lanctôt KL (February 2018). "Prevalence, neurobiology, and treatments for apathy in prodromal dementia". Int Psychogeriatr. 30 (2): 177–184. doi:10.1017/S1041610217000527. PMID 28416030. S2CID 46788701.
  20. ^ "equivocal symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  21. ^ "Constitutional symptom (Concept Id: C0009812) – MedGen – NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  22. ^ "Lymphoma/non-hodgkin-lymphoma/signs-and-symptoms". www.lls.org. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
  23. ^ "general symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  24. ^ "constitutional symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  25. ^ "concomitant symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  26. ^ "prodromal symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  27. ^ "delayed symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  28. ^ "objective symptom" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  29. ^ "Vital Signs Table – Prohealthsys". 3 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  30. ^ "Solution". Lifelight. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  31. ^ Jensen RN, Bolwig T, Sørensen SA (March 2018). "[Psychiatric symptoms in patients with Huntington's disease]". Ugeskr Laeger (in Danish). 180 (13). PMID 29587954.
  32. ^ "Noonan syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics". medlineplus.gov. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  33. ^ "Nephrotic Syndrome in Adults | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  34. ^ "What does SWAN or being undiagnosed mean? | SWAN UK". www.undiagnosed.org.uk. 22 March 2017. Archived from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  35. ^ Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 19th edition, Chapter 31: Numbness, Tingling, and Sensory Loss Archived 11 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ "Mental Health: a Report from the Surgeon General". Surgeongeneral.gov. 1999. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  37. ^ a b Understanding Psychosis Archived 2012-12-25 at the Wayback Machine, Mental Health Illness of Australia.
  38. ^ Darras BT, Friedman NR (1 February 2000). "Metabolic myopathies: a clinical approach; part I". Pediatric Neurology. 22 (2): 87–97. doi:10.1016/S0887-8994(99)00133-2. ISSN 0887-8994. PMID 10738913. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
  39. ^ Mueller C, Rajkumar AP, Wan YM, Velayudhan L, Ffytche D, Chaudhuri KR, et al. (July 2018). "Assessment and Management of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease". CNS Drugs. 32 (7): 621–635. doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0540-6. PMID 30027401. S2CID 51701905. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  40. ^ "Symptoms & Causes | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
  41. ^ Lesh TA, Niendam TA, Minzenberg MJ, Carter CS (January 2011). "Cognitive control deficits in schizophrenia: mechanisms and meaning". Neuropsychopharmacology. 36 (1): 316–338. doi:10.1038/npp.2010.156. PMC 3052853. PMID 20844478.
  42. ^ Brown TE (October 2008). "ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice". Current Psychiatry Reports. 10 (5): 407–411. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. PMID 18803914. S2CID 146463279.
  43. ^ O'Sullivan JW, Muntinga T, Grigg S, Ioannidis J (18 June 2018). "Prevalence and outcomes of incidental imaging findings: umbrella review". BMJ. 361: k2387. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2387. PMC 6283350. PMID 29914908.
  44. ^ Freire MO, Van Dyke TE (October 2013). "Natural resolution of inflammation". Periodontology 2000. 63 (1): 149–64. doi:10.1111/prd.12034. PMC 4022040. PMID 23931059.
  45. ^ "Acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis". Archived from the original on 6 April 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  46. ^ Lynch HT, Lynch JF, Lynch PM, Attard T (2008). "Hereditary colorectal cancer syndromes: molecular genetics, genetic counseling, diagnosis and management". Fam Cancer. 7 (1): 27–39. doi:10.1007/s10689-007-9165-5. PMID 17999161. S2CID 20103607.
  47. ^ Mańka W, Adrianowicz L, Wesołek Z, Adrianowicz K (2002). "[The value of determining vaginal secretion reaction (pH) as a screening test of bacterial vaginosis]". Wiad Lek (in Polish). 55 (1–2): 51–5. PMID 12043316.
  48. ^ "Definition of REFLEX". Merriam-Webster. 30 June 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  49. ^ "Definition of FACIES". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  50. ^ Hippocratic writings. Translated by Chadwick J, Mann W. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 1978. pp. 170–71. ISBN 0-14-044451-3.
  51. ^ a b King, Lester S. (1982). Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08297-9.
  52. ^ Sayampanathan AA, Heng CS, Pin, et al. (9 January 2021). "Infectivity of asymptomatic versus symptomatic COVID-19". The Lancet. 397 (10269): 93–94. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32651-9. PMC 7836843. PMID 33347812.
  53. ^ "Sumptoma, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Pursues". Perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  54. ^ The British Medical Association (BMA) (2002). Illustrated Medical Dictionary. A Dorling Kindersley Book. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-7513-3383-1.
  55. ^ "Definition of SYMPTOMATOLOGY". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  56. ^ "Definition of SEMIOLOGY". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  57. ^ David A. Bedworth, Albert E. Bedworth (2010). The Dictionary of Health Education. Oxford University Press. p. 484. ISBN 978-0-19-534259-8. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018.
  58. ^ a b Jewson, N.D., "Medical Knowledge and the Patronage System in 18th Century England Archived 7 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine", Sociology, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1974), pp. 369–85.
  59. ^ a b Jewson, N.D., "The Disappearance of the Sick Man from Medical Cosmology, 1770–1870 Archived 16 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine", Sociology, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1976), pp. 225–44.
  60. ^ Tsouyopoulos N (1988). "The mind-body problem in medicine (the crisis of medical anthropology and its historical preconditions)". Hist Philos Life Sci. 10 Suppl: 55–74. PMID 3413276.
  61. ^ Demuth A, Aharonowitz Y, Bachmann TT, Blum-Oehler G, Buchrieser C, Covacci A, et al. (May 2008). "Pathogenomics: an updated European Research Agenda". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 8 (3): 386–93. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.005. hdl:10033/30395. PMID 18321793.
  62. ^ a b Bedford DE (November 1971). "Auenbrugger's contribution to cardiology. History of percussion of the heart". Br Heart J. 33 (6): 817–21. doi:10.1136/hrt.33.6.817. PMC 458433. PMID 4256273.
  63. ^ Bynum W (1994). Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-521-27205-6.
  64. ^ Allbutt, T.C., "Medical Thermometry", British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, Vol. 45, No. 90, (April 1870), pp. 429–41; Vol. 46, No. 91, (July 1870), pp. 144–56.
  65. ^ "finding". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Signs_and_symptoms&oldid=1260229607"